A number of studies, as well as numerous practical applications, have led to a mountain of evidence that supports the use of small, mixed-ability cooperative groups in science classes. We are using the term collaborative in the heading of this section to emphasize the importance of verbal communication among the students within the small teams. Students need to talk about their observations, their ideas, and their theories in order to understand science. Students need to get along with each other.
As we said in Chapter 2, cooperative learning is a model of teaching in which students work together to achieve a particular goal or complete a task. A variety of cooperative learning models have been developed, field-tested, and evaluated. Some delineate how tasks are structured and how groups are evaluated. In some models, students work together on a single task; in others, group members work independently on one aspect of a task, pooling their work when they finish. Regardless of the model, there appears to be essential components of cooperative learning that are integral to any model of cooperative learning. We'll examine these essential components first, then move on and look at several cooperative learning models.
Essential Aspects of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning brings students together to work on tasks---solving problems, reviewing for a quiz, doing a lab activity, completing a worksheet. In all cases its the "working together" that is important. And this has presented a challenge to teachers, as well. When cooperative learning was introdued (in the early 1970s), American schools were faced with two important social changes. One was the mainstreaming of handicapped and disabled students into the regular classroom; the other was the integration of schools in which students from different cultural background were brought together in desegregated settings. One of the solutions proposed to help students from different racial groups work together in the same school setting, and for many handicapped students who lacked many "social skills," was cooperative learning. David and Roger Johnson (1996) outlined the essential components of a teaching and learning strategy that would focus on bringing small groups of students together in teams to work "cooperatively" as opposed to individually or competitively.
The Johnsons proposed a model in which five elements were essential for cooperative learning groups to be successful. That is, the lessons that teachers taught needed to be characterized by the following elements:
Face-to-Face Interaction. The physical arrangement of students in small, heteorogeneous groups encourages students to help, share and support each other's learning.Positive Interdependence. The teacher must structure the lesson either through a common goal, group reward, or differentiated role assignments to achieve interdependence among students in a learning team. One way to achieve this is instead of having each member of a lab team write up their own report, each team has one lab sheet and all students might sign off agreeing with its contents. A single grade is given based on the team's lab sheet. Assigning each person a role in the group is another way to achieve positive interdependence, e.g. members are assigned one of the following roles for an activity: chief scientist, researcher, observer/recorder, lab technician.
Individual Accountability. Each student in a learning team must be held accountable for learning and collaborating with other team members. Teachers can achieve individual accountability by focusing on a) individual contributions of individuals (using roles, dividing the task, using experts, giving feedback) and b) individual outcomes of individuals (using tests, quizzes, grading homework, giving group rewards for individual behavior, using random calling-on procedures).
Cooperative Social Skills. The Johnsons found that students needed to learn interpersonal skills such as active listening, staying on task, asking questions, making sure everyone contributed, using agreement, and so forth. Just as science teachers focus on scientific thinking skills (observing, inferring, hypothesizing, experimenting), and assume that students need to be taught these skills, cooperative learning experts have discovered that students need to be taught cooperative social skills.
Group Processing. The fifth essential element of cooperative learning is group processing. Students need to reflect on how well they worked together as a team to complete a task such as a laboratory activity. The teacher can structure this by simply asking the students to rate how well they did in the activity; or how well they "practiced" the social skill that was central in the activity.
The models that are presented here fall into two broad categories: tutorial methods, and problem-solving and conceptual methods. The tutorial methods tend to be structured and teacher-centered, while problem-solving methods tend to be more open-ended, and student-centered. The tutorial methods posses many of the characteristics of direct instruction, while the problem-solving methods facilitate inquiry learning. Elements of both methods will be seen to useful in learning cycle models.
Tutorial Models
In tutorial models students work in small teams to rehearse and learn science information that has been identified by the teacher. Often the material is based on the science textbook, and because of this, tutorial models are easily applied to the secondary science classroom. These methods tend to be motivational because they often involve teams competing against each other for reward structures (e.g. points, prizes, free time). Three models are presented, Student Teams Achievement Divisions, Jigsaw and Two Level Content Study Groups.
Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD). STAD was originated by Robert Slavin and his colleagues at Johns Hopkins University. The STAD model underscores many of the attributes of direct instruction, and it is a very easy model to implement in the science classroom. As in all the cooperative learning models to follow, STAD operates on the principle that students work together to learn and are responsible for their teammate's learning as well as their own.
There are four phases to the STAD model (Figure 7.28): teach (class presentation), team study, Test and Team Recognition. We will illustrate how STAD works by using an example for life science---food making (photosynthesis).
Phase I: Teach (Class Presentation). The class presentation is a teacher-directed presentation of the material---concepts, skills, and processes---that the students are to learn. Carefully written and planned objectives should be stated and used to determine the nature of the class presentation, and the team study to follow. Examples from a unit on Food making would be:
• Students will identify the steps in the food-making process
• Student will compare the light and dark phases of photosynthesis
Key concepts should be identified as well. In this case the following concepts would be presented: ATP, chlorophyll, dark phase, energy, glucose, light phase, photosynthesis.
The presentation can be a lecture, lecture/demonstration, or audiovisual presentation. You also could follow the lesson plans in the your science textbook, including the laboratory activities in this phase of STAD. Several lessons would be devoted to class presentations.
Phase II: Team Study. In STAD teams are composed of four students who represent a balance in terms of academic ability, gender, and ethnicity. The team is the most important feature of STAD, and it is important for the teacher to take the lead in identifying the members of each team. Slavin recommends rank ordering your students in terms of performance. Each team would be composed of high and low ranking student and two near the average. The goal is to attempt to achieve parity among the teams in the class. Teams should also be formed with sex and ethnicity in mind. Each team should be more or less an average composite of the class.
Team study consists of one or two periods in which each team masters material that you provide. Team members work together with prepared worksheets and make sure that each member of the team can answer all questions on the worksheet. Students should move their desks so that they face each other in each small team. Give each team two worksheets and two answer sheets (not one for each student). For example in the case of the Food Making unit, the teacher would provide the diagram shown below (Figure 7.29) summarizing photosynthesis, and construct a worksheet consisting of about thirty questions related to Food Making on a worksheet (Figure 7.30).
(Photosynthesis diagram)
In the STAD model the following team rules are explained and posted on the bulletin board:
1. Students have the responsibility to make sure that their teammates have learned the material.2. No one is finished studying until all teammates have mastered the subject.
3. Ask all teammates for help before asking the teacher.
4. Teammates may talk to each other softly.
It is important to encourage team members to work together. They work in pairs within the teams (sharing one worksheet), and then the pairs can share their work. A principle that is integral, not only to STAD, but to all cooperative learning models is that students must talk with each other in team learning sessions. It is during these small group sessions that students will teach each other, and learn from each other. One of the ways to encourage deeper understanding is for students to explain to each other their answers to the questions. One way to facilitate this process is for the teacher to circulate from group to group asking questions, and encouraging students to explain their answers
1. The organ of the
plant in which photosynthesis most often takes place is
the a. stem b. root c. leaf 2. Plants need which
of the following to carry on photosynthesis? a. O2, CO2,
chlorophyll b. H2O, CO2, light
energy, chlorophyll c. H2O, O2, light
energy, sugar 3. The energy stored
in plants comes form a. soil b. air c.
sunlight 4. The first phase
of photosynthesis is sometimes called the a. light
phase b. dark
phase c. chlorophyll
phase 5. The oxygen
released during photosynthesis comes from the a.
chlorophyll b. carbon
dioxide c. water 6. Photosynthesis
takes place in the ________ of a plant cell. a. cell
wall b.
cytoplasm c.
chloroplast 7. The energy from
the sun is stored in a chemical compound called a. ATP b. CO2 c. H2O 8. The second stage
of photosynthesis is called the a. light
phase b. dark
phase c. chlorophyll
phase
Phase III: Test. After the team study is completed, the teacher administers a test to measure the knowledge that students have gained. Student take the individual tests and are not permitted to help each other. To encourage students to work harder, STAD uses an "individual improvement score." Each student is assessed a base score---based on his or her previous performance on similar quizzes and tests. Improvement points, which are reported for each team on a team recognition chart on the bulletin board, are determined based on the percentage of improvement from the previous base score. Generally speaking, if the student get more than 10 points below the base score, the improvement score is 0, 10 points below to 1 point below results in 10 improvement points, base score to 10 points above gives a score of 20, and more than 10 points above is worth 30 improvement points. (A perfect score, regardless of base score earns 30 improvement points.
Phase IV: Team Recognition. Team averages are reported in the weekly recognition chart. Teachers can use special words to describe the teams' performance such as science stars, science geniuses, or Einstein's.
Recognition of the work of each team can occur by means of a newsletter, handout, or bulletin board that reports the ranking of each team within the class. Report outstanding individual performances, too. Sensitivity is required here. It is important to realize that praising students academically from low status groups is an integral part of the effectiveness of cooperative learning. Elizabeth Cohen has found that it is important to be aware of students who you suspect have consistently low expectations for competence. When such a student performs well (not just on the quiz), give immediate, specific and public recognition for this competence.
One final note about STAD. There is another model developed by Slavin called Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT) that is also recommended and is very similar to STAD. The same materials used in the team study are used in a series of games in a tournament style class session.
Jigsaw II.
Jigsaw II (developed by Eliot Aronson) is a cooperative learning model in which students become experts on part of the instructional material about which they are learning. By becoming an expert, and then teaching other members of their team, students become responsible for their own learning. The Jigsaw II model has the advantage of encouraging students of all abilities to be responsible to the same degree, although the depth and quality of their reports will vary.
In Jigsaw II students are grouped into teams of four members to study a chapter in a textbook. However, the content is broken into chunks, letting each team member become an expert on the one of the chunks and then responsible for teaching his or her team members that chunk. The phases of Jigsaw two are as follows (Figure 7.31).
Phase I: Text. The first step in the use of Jigsaw II is to select a chapter that contains material for two or three days. Divide the content in the chapter into chunks based on the number of team members. For example if you have four members in a team, then a in a chapter would be divided into four chunks (as shown in a chapter on electronics in aphysical science course
• Chunk 1: How do early electronic devices work?• Chunk 2: How are electronic devices used?
• Chunk 3: How is information processed in a computer?
• Chunk 4:What are some ethical issues concerning the use of electronic devices?
Each member of the team is assigned one of the topics and must read the chapter to find information about his or her assigned "chunk." In the next phase, each team member will meet with experts from other groups in the class.
Phase II: Expert Group Discussion. Expert group should meet for about half of a class period to discuss their assigned topic. Each expert group should receive an expert sheet (See Figure below for sample worksheets for the study of rocks). The expert sheets should contain questions and activities (optional) to direct their discussion. Encourage diversity in learning methods. Groups might do hands-on activities, read from other source books, or use a computer for a game or simulation. The groups' goal is to learn about the subtopic and to prepare a brief presentation that group members will use to teach the material to members of their respective learning teams.
Provide the group
with an assortment of igneous rocks 1. How were these
rocks formed? 2. Under what
environmental conditions are these rocks formed? Try to
illustrate your theory. 3. Observe each rock
and collect observations on a chart which should include:
name of rock or mineral, color (light or dark), shape and
color of crystals, arrangement of crystals (even or banded),
effect of acid, presence of fossils, and use of the
rock. 4. What are some
minerals in these rocks? 5. Where would you
find these rocks in (your state). 6. Would you find
igneous rocks in, on or under your school
grounds? 7a. What would you
predict about the size of crystals in igneous rocks if
magma: a) cooled slowly, b) cooled rapidly, c) cooled in
water? 7b. Explain your
prediction. 8. What is the
difference between an intrusive and extrusive igneous rock?
Give some examples. 9. If you wanted to
demonstrate how an igneous rock is made, what would you
do? 10. Do you think
there are igneous rocks on Mars?
Provide the group
with an assortment of sedimentary rocks 1. How were these
rocks formed? 2. Under what
environmental conditions are these rocks formed? Try to
illustrate your theory. 3. Observe each rock
and collect observations on a chart which should include:
name of rock or mineral, color (light or dark), shape and
color of crystals, arrangement of crystals (even or banded),
effect of acid, presence of fossils, and use of the
rock. 4. What are some
minerals in these rocks? 5. Where would you
find these rocks in (your state). 6. Would you find
sedimentary rocks in, on or under your school
grounds? 7. Why might you
expect to find fossils in sedimentary rocks? 8. Does shaking a
jar of mixed sized sand and water and observing the results
demonstrate part of the sedimentary process? Explain by
using a diagram and words. 9. Do you think
there are sedimentary rocks on Mars?
Provide the group
with an assortment of metamorphic rocks. 1. How were these
rocks formed? 2. Under what
environmental conditions are these rocks formed? Try to
illustrate your theory. 3. Observe each rock
and collect observations on a chart which should include:
name of rock or mineral, color (light or dark), shape and
color of crystals, arrangement of crystals (even or banded),
effect of acid, presence of fossils, and use of the
rock. 4. What are some
minerals in these rocks? 5. Where would you
find these rocks in (your state). 6. Would you find
metamorphic rocks in, on or under your school
grounds? 7.If you wanted to
demonstrate how a metamorphic rock is made, what would you
do? Illustrate and explain.
Note: This sheet is
to be used in home groups after expert groups have met. Give
this study sheet to each home team in preparation for a quiz
on rocks 1. Consider the
following rocks: sandstone, granite and marble. a) Under
what environmental conditions is each formed? b) Would they
be found on Mars? and c) Where would you find these in (your
state)? 2. What are the
differences between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks? 3. What are some
rocks that can be identified by an acid test? What does this
tell you about the composition of the rocks? 4. Complete these
sentences: a. Metamorphic rocks
from when... b. The Southern part
of (your state) contains rocks such as... c. In (a county next
to yours), you'll find these rocks... d. Fossils can be
found in...
Phase III: Reports and Test. In the next phase of Jigsaw II, each expert returns to his or her learning team, and teaches the topic to the other members. Encourage members to use a variety of teaching methods. They can demonstrate an idea, read a report, use the computer, or illustrate their ideas with photographs or diagrams. Encourage team members to discuss the reports and ask questions, as each team member is responsible for learning about all of the subtopics.
After the experts are finished reporting, conduct a brief class discussion or a question and answer session. The test, which covers all the subtopics should be administered immediately and should note take more than fifteen minutes. Test design should include at least two questions per subtopic.
Team recognition should follow the same procedures used in STAD.
Two Level Content Study Groups.
Jones and Steinbrink have made changes in Jigsaw II and developed a model specific to science in what they refer to as the "Two level content study groups" model of cooperative learning. Their method involves the identification of two levels of cooperative groups, namely a "home team," and an "expert group." They also have developed job descriptions to clarify roles in these two levels of groups. Another change they have made is the size of the group. Home teams are comprised of from three to five members depending upon the way the content can be divided in the text. They point out that if a chapter has three equal divisions, then each home team would be comprised of three members.
The cooperative learning models presented to this point have stressed rehearsal for a quiz, or placed emphasis on having students master a body of information. In each of the models, students tutor each other and then compete against other teams either through tests, tournaments or games.
What cooperative learning models can be implemented if the science teacher's goals include problem solving and the development of higher order cognitive thinking skills? The cooperative learning models that follow emphasize a structure in which students share ideas, solve problems, discover new information, learn abstract concepts, and seek answers to their own questions.
Group Investigation
Developed by Shlomo Sharan and Yael Sharan and their colleagues, the Group Investigation method is one of the most complex forms of cooperative learning. Its philosophy is to cultivate democratic participation and an equitable distribution of speaking privileges. It also encourages students to study different topics within a group, and to share what they learn with group members and with the whole class.
This method places maximum responsibility on the students, who identify what and how to learn, gather information, analyze and interpret knowledge, and share in each other's work. It is very similar to another method of cooperative learning developed by Spencer Kagan called Co-op Co-op, and would have the greatest chance of success if students have experience with other forms of cooperative learning.
There are several phases to the Group Investigation method. Although GI places more responsibility on each group to make decisions about content and process, the teacher must stay in contact with the groups, and facilitate their flow through the phases (see the chart below). The best topics for Group Investigations are ones that require problem solving on the part of each team. Although, topics can be fairly descriptive, encouraging an investigative approach will reinforce inquiry learning in the science classroom. Group Investigation might also used in place of individual science fair projects (see Chapter 8).
Phase I: Topic and Problem Selection. Students organize into groups of five (or fewer) and choose specific topics or problems in a general subject area of science. Group Investigation lends itself to a wide range of problem solving strategies. Students can ask questions that require empirical research, survey or questionnaires, or historical reporting. Each group plans its own topic or subject of investigation, and strategy for exploration. Then individuals or pairs with the group selects subtopics or specific investigatory tasks and decide how they will carry them out.
Phase II: Cooperative Planning. You and the students in each learning team plan specific learning procedures, tasks, and goals consistent with the subtopics of the problem selected.
Phase III: Implementation. Students carry out the plans formulated in the second step. Learning should involve a wide range of activities and skills, and should lead students to different kinds of sources, both inside and outside of school. Students might work in small groups or individually to gather data and information.
Phase IV: Analysis and Synthesis. Students meet to discuss the results of their subgroup or individual work. Meetings of this nature will naturally take place more than once during the implementation of Group Investigation. The information that has been gathered on the topic or problem is analyzed, and each group members' piece is synthesized to prepare a report for the whole class.
Phase V: Class Presentation. One of the attractive features of Group Investigation is that each team makes a presentation to the whole class. Students have to cooperate to prepare a presentation. Teams should be encouraged to prepare presentations that involve the audience, such as debates, demonstrations, hands-on activities, plays, or computer simulations.
During the presentation, the presenting team is responsible for setting up the room, gathering any equipment and materials, and preparing necessary handouts. Encourage the teams to allow at least five minutes for questions and comments from the class. In some cases, you should facilitate this aspect of the presentation.